This article will take an in-depth look at copper.
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Copper is a flexible and easily shaped metal with a distinctive reddish-gold hue, celebrated for its superior thermal and electrical conductivity. It is frequently alloyed with metals like tin and zinc to form brass and bronze. Being prone to rapid oxidation, copper is categorized as a base metal. Represented by the symbol Cu, it occupies atomic number 29 on the periodic table. The onset of the Bronze Age can be traced back to when copper was alloyed with tin to create bronze, suitable for crafting tools and weaponry.
Historically, copper has joined silver and gold in coinage. It is the favored metal for minting coins due to its lower cost relative to precious metals. Copper comprises alloys found in all US coins and is also used in gun metal production.
Copper is available in various forms such as foil, sheets, rods, wires, and plates, all renowned for high electrical conductivity. More refined copper grades even surpass this conductivity.
Copper finds use across diverse sectors. In architecture, it enhances aesthetic appeal and durability in wall tiles and facades. It’s also favored by DIY enthusiasts for adorning bar tops.
The highest purity level of copper is grade 101, featuring 99.99% copper. The most widespread grade, 110, is prevalent in electrical and architectural applications, fortified by alloying elements that boost strength without compromising flexibility.
Primarily, copper is utilized in motors and various electrical apparatuses due to its excellent ability to conduct heat and electricity and be easily drawn into wires. Copper is also pivotal in creating industrial machinery, roofing components, and plumbing systems. Copper sulfate is extensively employed as a pesticide in agriculture and as an algicide in water filtration systems. In chemical testing, copper compounds, such as those in Fehling's solution, play a role in sugar detection.
Native copper is often found in basaltic lava flows. It is also extractable from numerous copper-containing compounds like sulfides, chlorides, arsenides, and carbonates. Minerals such as chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, cuprite, malachite, and azurite are notable copper sources.
Copper exists in the human liver, certain marine corals, seaweed ash, and numerous arthropods. In creatures like blue-blooded crustaceans and mollusks, copper is analogous to iron in human hemoglobin, facilitating oxygen transport via hemocyanin. As a trace metal, copper aids in hemoglobin production in humans as well.
As a highly ductile metal, copper is neither particularly hard nor strong by itself. However, its properties improve significantly through cold working, where the metal is reshaped below its recrystallization threshold, resulting in an elongated, face-centered cubic crystalline structure akin to that found in harder, annealed copper. While gases such as oxygen and sulfur dioxide can impair the properties of solidified metals, they are not soluble in molten copper. In thermal and electrical conductivity, pure copper stands just under silver. Natural copper predominantly consists of stable isotopes: copper-63 and copper-65.
Copper's reactivity is particularly low with hydrogen-acidic environments, as it ranks lower than hydrogen on the electromotive series. However, it engages with oxidizing acids like nitric and hot, concentrated sulfuric acids. While resistant to seawater and atmospheric conditions, ongoing exposure to air results in a green patina of hydroxycarbonate and hydroxysulfate. In air’s absence, non-oxidizing or non-complexing dilute acids exert minimal influence on copper, rendering it comparatively noble.
In oxygen’s presence, copper dissolves in sulfuric and nitric acids. Additionally, it dissolves in aqueous ammonia or potassium cyanide when oxygen is present, forming stable cyano complexes.
Copper grades fall into six categories: pure copper, dilute copper alloys, brass, bronze, copper-nickel alloys, and nickel-silver alloys. Organized by the Unified Numbering System (UNS) developed by ANSI and administered by SAE and ASTM, these grades help define the specific properties of copper.
Pure copper grades, with under 0.7% impurities, are found in UNS numbers C10100-C13000. Dilute copper grades contain small alloy additions for custom property changes. For instance, C11000 is renowned for superior electrical conductivity in electrical contexts. Copper-nickel variants, containing 1.5% to 4.5% nickel, are labeled under UNS C70000 to C73499.
The diverse grades are chosen for manufacturing based on desired traits. Grades C70000 to C73499 are manufactured into various items such as coins, evaporators, and heat exchanger tubes, while grades within UNS C73500 to C79999 are used for products like ballpoint pens, musical instruments, and transistor casings.
Copper is found across the Earth's surface in mineral deposits or ores mixed with other metals such as zinc and lead. It is primarily extracted through open-pit or underground mining. Of the copper mined, 90% comes from open-pit mining, which involves removing ores from near the surface by digging into the Earth's crust in successive steps.
Copper demand is high in major countries and infrastructure projects. China is the largest consumer, accounting for 52%, followed by Europe at 16%. The leading producers of copper are Chile, Peru, and China, with the United States ranked 5th. Copper is also used in alloys to enhance the malleability of other metals or to impart color.
When the depth of the ore makes open-pit mining impractical, underground mining is employed. This method involves creating shafts in the Earth's surface to allow machinery or explosives to extract the ore.
Once ore is extracted, it must be processed to achieve a high level of purity. Sulfide ores undergo the following five steps:
High concentrations of copper oxide are achieved through a three-step process applied to copper oxide ores:
Smelting or leaching, followed by electrodeposition from sulfate solutions, are the primary methods used to produce copper for industrial applications. The majority of globally produced copper is consumed by the electrical industry, with the remaining copper being alloyed with other metals.
Copper also plays a critical technical role as an electroplated coating. It is a key component in several important alloys, including brasses, nickel silvers, and bronzes. Copper and nickel can be alloyed to produce various useful alloys, such as Monel®. The aluminum bronzes, which combine copper and aluminum, are also notable. Additionally, beryllium copper is a distinctive alloy because it can be heat-treated to enhance its hardness.
Typically, a copper wire serves as a single conductor for electrical communications, whereas a copper cable consists of multiple copper wires bundled together within a single jacket. Despite their variations, all types of copper wire perform the same fundamental function: transmitting electricity with minimal resistance, which helps reduce voltage drops and heat dissipation. Some common types of copper wire include:
Copper alloy wire comes in both standard and specialized forms. Key factors to consider when selecting a product include size, tensile strength (measured in psi), and operating temperature. Alternatives such as brass, bronze, titanium, and zirconium may be considered, each affecting the wire's strength, solderability, durability, and insulation requirements.
When selecting a copper or copper-alloy conductor for a specific electrical application, it is important to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each type. For applications requiring higher strength or better abrasion and corrosion resistance, copper alloy conductors may be preferable over pure copper. However, while copper alloys offer improved strength and resistance, they generally have lower electrical conductivity compared to pure copper.
Copper is widely used as an electrical conductor in various types of wiring. The telecommunications industry relies on copper wire for power generation, transmission, and message distribution. Additionally, copper is integral to electronic circuits and numerous electrical devices, including phones. Copper and its alloys are also used for electrical contacts. One of the largest markets for copper is in electrical wiring for buildings, where about half of the copper extracted from the earth is used for this purpose.
The effectiveness of a material in transferring electrical charge is determined by its electrical conductivity, which is essential for electrical wiring systems. Copper has an electrical resistivity of 16.78 nΩ•m at 68 °F (20 °C), making it the non-precious metal with the highest electrical conductivity.
While pure copper is a single metal, copper alloys are composed of various alloying elements such as nickel, aluminum, silicon, tin, and zinc. These elements are mixed in different proportions to impart specific desirable qualities to the alloys. Common copper alloys include ETP (Electrolytic Tough Pitch) copper and OF (Oxygen-Free) copper.
This alloy is the most commonly used copper alloy and exhibits excellent characteristics of ETP copper. It is favored for electrical applications and scenarios requiring low resistance levels because it offers a minimum conductivity of 100% IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard).
Commercially available ETP copper is widely used for making sheets, plates, square bars, strips, and wires. Although not entirely oxygen-free, ETP copper is classified as oxygen-free copper (OFC) because it has a minimum conductivity of 100% IACS. In comparison, OFC typically requires a purity of 99.9%. ETP copper's high conductivity makes it the most popular and widely used copper type. Additionally, ETP copper 110 is valued for its corrosion resistance, workability, and aesthetic qualities, which contribute to its broad range of applications.
OF copper, which is 99.99% pure, contains 0.0005% oxygen. This alloy is less prone to hydrogen embrittlement, has a conductivity of 101% IACS, and is resistant to oxidation.
The highest grade of copper, C101 OF copper, closely resembles elemental copper in its material properties. Due to the extremely high purity required for OF copper, silver impurities are removed.
C101 OF copper is an ultra-high purity product known for its exceptional ductility, excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, and superior machinability. These properties are enhanced compared to standard copper products due to its reduced oxygen concentration of less than 0.0005%. Consequently, it finds a wide range of highly specialized industrial applications.
The primary difference in processing C101 OF copper compared to pure copper lies in the final refining step. To achieve the low oxygen levels required, this step must be conducted in an oxygen-free environment. This often involves melting copper in a vacuum or a precisely controlled inert atmosphere and then casting the molten copper.
Due to the extensive processing required to achieve such high purity, C101 OF copper is the most expensive grade of copper available.
A non-ferrous alloy called beryllium copper is used in load cells, spring wire, and other items that need to maintain their form under repeated stress and strain. Because of its excellent electrical conductivity, it is utilized in low-current connections for batteries and electrical wiring.
Despite its strength and magnetic inertness, beryllium copper is non-flammable, making it suitable for use in explosive environments such as oil rigs, coal mines, and grain elevators. Beryllium copper tools, including screwdrivers, pliers, wrenches, cold chisels, and hammers, are available for these hazardous settings. While these tools are more expensive and less durable than steel alternatives, their safety features make them preferable for use in dangerous conditions. Aluminum bronze is sometimes used as an alternative for non-sparking equipment.
Beryllium copper wire combines the high strength and non-magnetic, non-sparking properties of copper. It can be either age-hardened or mill-hardened, and is suitable for creating complex structures, intricate shapes, or springs. This wire is flexible and corrosion-resistant, making it ideal for machining, forming, and metalworking applications.
Beryllium copper is known by several names, including copper beryllium, beryllium bronze, Alloy 172, spring copper, and BeCu. These terms are commonly used when referring to this alloy.
The versatility of beryllium copper makes it suitable for a wide range of applications. Its non-sparking, non-magnetic properties, combined with its strength and excellent thermal and electrical conductivity, contribute to its broad use in various fields.
In copper-clad aluminum (CCA) wire, aluminum serves as the core, while a thin outer layer of oxygen-free copper is applied. This layer is bonded to the aluminum through a continuous, permanent weld during the cladding process. CCA wire is ideal for electrical applications where both conductivity and weight are important. The copper layer, which constitutes 10% to 15% of the wire's cross-sectional area, ensures excellent solderability and maintains AC conductivity equivalent to solid copper at frequencies over 5 MHz. CCA wire is manufactured according to ASTM B-566 specifications and provides effective insulation and shielding for the electric current.
CCA wire comes in various conductor sizes, insulation types, and jacket thicknesses. It is resistant to oil, fire, and ozone, and can operate at extreme temperatures. The copper cladding enhances conductivity while reducing the wire's overall weight. Although CCA wire is less expensive than pure copper wire, it offers greater strength and electrical conductivity compared to pure aluminum wire.
Due to the skin effect, which causes more alternating current to flow through the outer portion of a wire, CCA wires benefit from their copper cladding. This effect is pronounced at high frequencies, making the wire's resistance comparable to that of pure copper because of the superior conductivity of the outer copper layer. Consequently, CCA wire is well-suited for radio frequency applications due to its improved conductivity over bare aluminum wire.
Copper-clad steel wire, which will be discussed further below, utilizes the skin effect similarly to copper-clad aluminum wire. Copper-clad aluminum wires are commonly employed for high-frequency feedlines that require high conductivity and strength.
The characteristics of copper-clad aluminum wire are as follows:
Copper-clad steel (CCS) is created by bonding a layer of copper to steel wires, combining the mechanical strength of steel with the corrosion resistance and conductivity of copper. This process produces a wire that efficiently transfers electrical energy, making CCS ideal for power installations, grounding wires, and telephone lines. CCS wires typically offer conductivity ranging from 20% to 40%, depending on the specific requirements of a project. Additionally, the bonding process makes it nearly impossible to remove the copper layer, enhancing theft resistance.
For many electrical applications, including grounding and power installations, metallic cables are essential. These cables must be robust to withstand corrosion and heavy use while maintaining high conductivity. Copper provides excellent conductivity but lacks strength, while steel is strong but less conductive. Copper-clad steel combines the strengths of both metals, offering a solution that balances durability and electrical performance.
The production of copper-clad steel involves a straightforward process: a low-carbon steel wire is first produced for its pliability. Copper is then heated and applied as a coating, forming a strong bond with the steel. This bond is so durable that it is often described as a "marriage" of metals. The resulting CCS wire benefits from the steel's high tensile and mechanical strength, while the copper coating prevents corrosion, extending the wire's lifespan even under heavy use. Most CCS cables use copper with conductivity ranging from 20% to 40%, providing a versatile and durable option for various applications.
Copper-clad steel offers several notable benefits, including enhanced theft deterrence. While copper itself is not traditionally considered a precious metal, it is often targeted by thieves for resale. Copper-clad steel's composite nature makes it less attractive to thieves, as the copper is bonded to steel, making it difficult to separate. The wire's lower intrinsic value and the challenge of removing the copper layer reduce the incentive for theft.
Combining the high tensile strength of steel with the excellent conductivity of copper, copper-clad steel (CCS) wire is used in various applications, such as power supply lines, computer hardware, motors, magnetic assemblies, and advanced pressure and temperature measurement devices. Typically, annealed or soft-tempered copper-clad steel has lower tensile strength compared to its hard-drawn counterparts, but it still provides a robust and effective solution for many industrial needs.
The great tensile strength of steel serves as the core of copper-clad steel wire (CCS), which also has copper's outer layer of conductivity. The inner conductor of coaxial cables or grounding wire is commonly made of low carbon steel as the core material. According to ASTM B-452 specifications, copper-clad steel is produced in two tempers—soft and hard drawn—with 40% conductivity.
While the steel core in copper-clad steel wire can theoretically be made from any suitable grade for the wire's intended use, specific applications, such as medical ones, may require copper-clad stainless steel (CCSS) with a core from the 300 series for enhanced performance and corrosion resistance.
Besides using "bare" copper-clad steel wire, it can also be electroplated with metals like gold, silver, solder, tin, or nickel to leverage the additional benefits of these materials. Additionally, an insulating layer of enamel can be applied to provide extra heat protection or serve as a barrier against environmental factors.
Titanium-clad copper wire features a thin titanium coating over a copper core. This combination enhances the wire's ductility, making it suitable for shaping and forming, and provides excellent weldability for joining, capping, and connecting applications. It is ideal for use in environments requiring high current-carrying capacity and exceptional corrosion resistance, such as in desalination, water treatment, power production, and chemical processing.
To produce titanium-clad copper, a copper rod is coated with a titanium layer, typically ranging from 1.0 to 1.2 mm in thickness. This composite material can come in various shapes, including round, flat, square, or rectangular, depending on its cross-sectional geometry. The titanium coating provides superior corrosion resistance, while the copper core ensures high electrical conductivity. This makes titanium-clad copper an excellent choice for transporting large currents, maintaining consistent current density, and preventing electrolyte contamination from copper corrosion in mildly corrosive environments. These properties make it a key material in the production of metal anode electrolyzers.
Nickel plating is frequently used on wire goods because it provides the best corrosion protection available. Even at high temperatures, wires coated with nickel remain robust. These cables are frequently utilized in settings with high temperatures because of the copper conductor’s exceptional performance owing to the 27% nickel plating.
The 27% nickel-plating on copper wire provides robust protection, withstanding temperatures up to 1,382 °F (750 °C) and offering excellent corrosion resistance at temperatures as low as °F (-60 °C). Nickel is highly resistant to alkalis, reducing agents, and salt sprays, making it a durable choice for various environments.
Nickel-plated copper lead wire cables are also easy to weld, though active flux products are necessary for soldering. Nickel, with its conductivity at 25% of copper's, enhances the performance of the copper core. This coating not only improves conductivity but also extends the wire's lifespan by protecting it from high temperatures and environmental wear.
Copper has a wide range of applications, including:
Copper is the preferred metal for electricity production, transmission, and distribution due to its cost-effectiveness compared to precious metals. It also plays a crucial role in data transfer within the telecommunications sector, especially concerning internet connectivity and cable wiring. Copper’s beneficial properties are integral to the interconnected systems used in commercial operations and power generation and distribution.
In the modern era, copper is central to electricity usage. As technology advances, the demand for copper has surged. When alloyed with other metals, copper exhibits enhanced properties, expanding its range of applications.
Copper is essential across the entire power grid, from generation to consumption. Power stations generate electricity, which is then transmitted through transformers and sent over transmission lines. Substations throughout the network help move the power to its final destination. Copper is a vital component in each step of this process, including in lines, cables, transformers, circuit breakers, and switches.
Copper has played a crucial role in the growth of the electrical industry due to its excellent conductivity, mechanical properties, and performance in both ambient and high-temperature environments. Its formability and ease of fabrication have further contributed to its significance. In the past thirty years, rapid advancements in electronic and computer technologies have increased demands for materials that can withstand extreme service conditions.
To meet the needs of the electronics industry, metals with a tensile strength of 200 ksi (1400 MPa) are required. Beryllium copper, heat-treated to achieve this strength, is commonly used in heavy industrial applications. Additionally, brazed copper brass alloys are utilized in automobile radiators because of copper's superior thermal conductivity.
Copper and its alloys have become a valuable part of the manufacture of miniaturized intricate parts for handheld devices and multi-ton equipment for heavy industrial applications. Engineering applications include valves, pumps, heat exchangers, aircraft brakes, and sleeve bearings.
While aluminum has traditionally been important in semiconductor production due to its corrosion and rust resistance, recent advancements show that using copper instead of aluminum can enhance semiconductor performance by 30% and reduce its size. With the ability to place up to 200 million transistors on a single chip, copper's impact on semiconductor technology is significant.
Copper is widely utilized in manufacturing various components such as cables, connectors, and switches for electronic devices. It also plays a crucial role in heat exchangers for cooling systems like air conditioners and refrigerators, as well as in microprocessors for smartphones, computers, and other electronics.
Induction motors are favored in automotive production for their high torque density, efficiency, and durability. Traditionally, these motors used low-cost aluminum rotors due to their ease of casting. However, the International Copper Association (ICA) and Copper Development Association (CDA) have developed a stable casting process that allows for the production of copper rotor bars and end rings. This advancement reduces electrical loss and enables the creation of smaller, more efficient induction motors.
Similarly, copper is increasingly replacing aluminum in transformer windings. Copper windings offer practical and efficient benefits, making transformers more compact and portable. With a yield strength of 280 N/mm², copper is stronger, harder, and more ductile than aluminum, making it suitable for heavy-duty transformers. Copper windings are fatigue-resistant, enhance energy performance, and reduce life cycle costs.
These applications highlight just a few of the many uses of copper in the development and production of equipment. Its strength, durability, reliability, and availability make copper a foundational material for both existing technologies and future innovations.
One of the fastest-growing industries globally is the electric car sector, which has its roots in the first industrial revolution. Although this innovative concept was initially explored whimsically, it only gained serious attention with the advent of personal vehicles in the early 20th century.
In the 21st century, the vision of a century ago has materialized into hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and all-electric cars that rely heavily on copper components. Copper is integral to various parts of electric vehicles, including motor windings, braking systems, driving controls, and gearboxes. It also plays a crucial role in automatic temperature controls, seat motors, and hands-free mobile phone access. A typical car contains over 50 pounds of copper and features approximately one mile of wiring.
Motor oil manufacturers have discovered that adding copper to lubricants helps an engine run smoother and last longer. The introduction of the process is one of the most significant advancements in crankcase chemistry. A wide variety of agricultural and construction equipment rely on copper as part of their structure.
The massive electric shovel, the largest land machine, contains 4,000 tons of copper. The Boeing 747-200 incorporates 2% copper, equivalent to 4.5 tons, and features 632,000 feet of copper wire. A typical diesel-electric locomotive has 5.5 tons of copper, with the latest and most powerful models using up to 8 tons. Diesel-electric railroad locomotives utilize conductor bars for their rotors, six three-phase AC induction motors, and copper wire for windings.
These examples illustrate just a fraction of copper's extensive use in the transportation industry. Copper's excellent conductivity, durability, and strength make it indispensable in various applications. Additionally, copper is often used in the form of bronze or brass for both industrial and consumer products.
Due to its corrosion resistance and ability to repel grime, copper-nickel alloys are commonly used in boats and ships. As reliance on electronics increases, future generations of electric, hybrid, and even traditional vehicles, as well as aircraft and high-speed trains, are expected to require even more copper than their predecessors.
Copper is widely used in both residential and commercial buildings. Its corrosion resistance makes it ideal for sprinkler, plumbing, and roofing systems. Additionally, brass doorknobs, composed of copper and zinc, are commonly found in public spaces due to the antibacterial properties of copper and its alloys.
Copper products with higher purity levels exhibit superior corrosion resistance, enhanced electrical conductivity, and generate less heat when conducting electricity. C101 oxygen-free copper, being the purest form of copper available, provides the highest level of these benefits.
By removing almost all impurities and oxygen, C101 copper minimizes disruptions in the metallic structure and significantly reduces the oxidation that can impair performance. This results in improved overall quality and efficiency of the copper.
Due to the higher cost of C101 oxygen-free copper, its applications are generally specialized. These include:
C110 copper is commonly used in industrial applications where ductility is important. It is utilized in plumbing, roofing, and electrical systems, as well as in electromagnets, electric motors, and various electronics. Its distinctive color also makes it popular in residential and architectural settings, such as kitchen backsplashes, cutting boards, and cookware.
C110 copper is extensively used in construction-related applications, including wiring, skylight frames, gutters, flashing, and plumbing components. While C110 copper can be welded, the inert gases required for welding are often not recommended due to potential health risks associated with their use.
Beryllium copper (BeCu) is extensively used in electronic connections, telecommunications equipment, computer components, and small springs. Some of the key benefits of beryllium copper include:
A single spark can pose significant risks to lives and property in hazardous environments like coal mines and oil rigs. Beryllium copper's non-sparking and non-magnetic properties make it a vital safety feature in such settings. Tools marked with "BeCu," such as wrenches, screwdrivers, and hammers, are made from beryllium copper and are safe for use in these environments.
Beyond its use in non-sparking equipment, beryllium copper is also valued in the creation of high-quality musical instruments. It produces percussion instruments with consistent tone and resonance, making it a popular choice for triangles and tambourines. Additionally, BeCu maintains its strength and thermal conductivity at low temperatures, making it suitable for cryogenic applications.
In valve seats, beryllium copper serves as an alternative to powdered steel or iron, offering superior heat dispersion. These valve seats are commonly used in high-performance, four-stroke engines, often paired with titanium valves.
Copper-clad aluminum is widely used in the music industry, including in loudspeakers, subwoofers, guitar cables, amplifiers, noise-cancellation devices, and high-performance audio equipment. Additional applications include:
Copper-clad steel is primarily utilized in power supply and conversion applications, including wireless, heavy-duty, and specialized power supplies. Other uses include:
The ductility of copper allows it to be shaped into a wide range of instruments and devices. As a widely available metal, copper continues to be a key component in ongoing innovations. Beyond its role as an electrical conductor, copper is also valuable in various forms, from decorative and artistic pieces to essential wires and coils.
Over the thousands of years that copper has been known, engineers and inventors have consistently sought new and improved uses for it. Each innovation and development has contributed to more efficient and productive advancements in technology.
Copper coils are thermal and electrical conductive components made from copper wire or tubing, which is bent and wound into a spiral shape. They are crafted from 99.9% pure copper, allowing them to be easily twisted, bent, and shaped.
There are a wide assortment of uses for copper coils from heating and cooling systems to wound coils for induction motors. When copper wire is wound to form a coil, its electricity conducting properties can be transformed into a magnet. Although copper is not magnetic, the addition of electricity to a copper coil changes the movement of electrons in the copper atoms. The magnet properties produced by copper coils are used in motors, dynamos, and transformers.
Copper tubes are produced through extrusion, where a heated billet of copper is forced through a die to create a tube shape. Made from 99.9% pure copper, these tubes are easy to form, shape, and configure. Copper tubes are crucial components in air conditioning and refrigerant systems.
The use of copper tubes is due to their ability to form a tight seal that prevents leakage. There are two main types of copper tubes: hard drawn and soft copper. Hard drawn copper tubes are rigid and come in three thicknesses—Type K, Type L, and Type M—with Type K being the thickest and used for high-pressure applications.
Soft copper tubes are flexible, pliable, and easily bent with an outer diameter (OD) of 0.125 inch up to 1.625 inch (3 mm up to 41 mm). The uses for soft copper tubes include plumbing projects since it is easier to bend and shape. Additionally, soft copper tubes are used for electrical applications.
Copper bars, including bus bars and ETP bars, offer excellent thermal and electrical conductivity and are used in the construction and plumbing industries. Their popularity stems from their ability to withstand harsh conditions. Copper bars are versatile and can be shaped to fit various applications.
Copper bars serve as raw materials for producing various copper products and are used in manufacturing automobiles and resistance welding electrodes. Different grades of copper are used depending on the application. C110 or C11000 copper bars are especially in demand in the electronics industry.
Alloy C36000 is a highly machinable brass known for its superior strength and corrosion resistance. C36000 brass bars are valued for maintaining strength under demanding conditions and are used in heavy industrial applications.
Copper sheets and foil are produced by roll forming, where a heated copper billet is passed through rollers to create thin sheets. The thickness of these sheets is determined by the number of passes through the rollers. The thickness or gauge of the sheets varies based on their intended applications.
The ductility of copper makes the formation of copper sheets an energy efficient process since less pressure is required to form the sheets. As with other forms of copper, sheeting and foil is produced using a wide range of coppers and copper alloys such as C110, C102, C145, C172, and C100. The gauges of copper sheets run the full gamut of thicknesses from 24 gauge with a thickness of 0.0215 inch (0.54 mm) to 11 gauge at 0.125 inch (3 mm).
Copper strips are produced similarly to copper sheets and foil, using roll forming to create sheets that are then cut to the desired width and length. Other methods, such as welding and extrusion, are also used to produce copper strips.
Copper strips are made from grades such as C10100, C10200, C10500, C10700, and C12200, with gauges ranging from 0.008 inch to 0.040 inch ± 0.0003 inch (0.200 mm to 1.0 mm ± 0.0076 mm) and widths from 0.500 inch to 3.00 inch ± 0.003 inch (12.5 mm to 76.0 mm ± 0.076 mm). They come in various forms, including bare, enameled, braided, and paper copper strips, with bare copper strips being the most commonly used.
Despite their malleability, copper strips maintain tensile strength under pressure. They are typically used as wire due to copper's excellent electrical conductivity.
Copper fasteners are made from various copper alloys, including brass, bronze, and beryllium copper. These alloys are used to create a range of screws and bolts, including hexagonal, countersunk, flat, round, pan, flanged, socket, winged, button head screws, t-slot bolts, and eye bolts.
The lightweight nature of copper fasteners makes them ideal for use in automobiles, engines, ships, and airplanes. They are preferred for applications exposed to corrosive substances and moisture due to their ability to maintain shape and strength under rigorous conditions.
Copper flanges are rings available in various sizes, shapes, and configurations, including weld neck, slip-on, threaded, blind, socket, and orifice types. The stability, strength, and durability of copper make these flanges an excellent choice for pipe connections. They offer long-lasting performance and the inherent resistant properties of copper.
The variety of copper flanges allows for precise selection to meet the needs of different piping applications. Copper flanges are also weldable, providing secure connections. For applications involving brine water, salt water, and diluted non-oxidized acids, copper-nickel grades C70600 and C71500 are used due to their marine resistance.
Copper plates, like sheets, bars, and strips, are valued for their thermal and electrical conductivity, strength, formability, and corrosion resistance. They are widely used in the marine industry due to their antifouling properties, which prevent the growth of aquatic organisms.
Before the advent of electronic printing, etched copper plates were crucial in photogravure printing, a technique still used in art creation. Copper plates are also used in roofing, chimneys, and edging. Copper grade C110, one of the most commonly used grades, is frequently used for copper plates.
Copper rods provide a conductive path for electrical current in cables. They are made by drawing pure copper through dies to achieve the desired rod profile. High-quality, 99.9% pure copper is used for manufacturing copper rods, which are coated with plastic or rubber to protect them and prevent contact with other equipment.
Electrical tough pitch (ETP) copper is the most commonly used for copper rods due to its high electrical conductivity. It is used in power systems, electronic equipment, and medical applications. ETP copper grades C11000 and C11040 offer the necessary strength and stability for producing copper rods. Copper earth rods are used to provide grounding for high-voltage substations, towers, and power distribution systems.
Copper processing is a complicated procedure that requires numerous phases. Copper producers use different refining methods depending on the type of ore, as well as other economic and environmental variables. Currently, sulfide sources account for around 80% of the world's copper output.
Regardless of the kind of ore, mined copper ore must first be concentrated in order to remove copper from gangue (the undesirable elements embedded in an ore). The ore is crushed and ground into powder as the initial stage in this procedure in a ball or rod mill. From there, additional steps are taken to extract the copper from the ore.
More steps are then required to transform the copper into a material suitable for various commercial applications. Various copper alloys have been developed, each suitable for specific purposes. Copper-based products may be found nearly everywhere in our daily lives, from the copper pipes and wires in our homes and offices to the microchips and semiconductors hiding in our smartphones and other electronic devices.
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Stainless steel grade 304 is an austenite stainless steel that is the most widely used and versatile of the various grades of stainless steel. It is a part of the T300 series stainless steels with...
Stainless steel is a type of steel alloy containing a minimum of 10.5% chromium. Chromium imparts corrosion resistance to the metal. Corrosion resistance is achieved by creating a thin film of metal...
Stainless steel grades each consist of carbon, iron, 10.5%-30% chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and other alloying elements. It is a popular metal used in various products, tools, equipment, and structures that serve in many industrial, commercial, and domestic applications...
Steel service centers are companies that specialize in procuring steel directly from mills and manufacturers and supplying them to the customers. They are fundamental to the steel supply chain...
Stainless steel can be fabricated using any of the traditional forming and shaping methods. Austenitic stainless steel can be rolled, spun, deep drawn, cold forged, hot forged, or stippled using force and stress...
Stainless steel tubing is a multifaceted product that is commonly utilized in structural applications. Stainless steel tubing diameters and variations vary greatly based on the application requirements and are...
Titanium metal, with the symbol Ti, is the ninth most abundant element in the earth‘s crust. It does not occur in large deposits, yet small amounts of titanium are found in almost every rock...
Tungsten is a rare naturally occurring chemical element on earth. It is known to be one of the toughest metals on the earth. It is usually a tin white or a steel gray metal. Tungsten is common for its high tensile...
Aluminum is the most abundant metal on the Earth’s crust, but it rarely exists as an elemental form. Aluminum and its alloys are valued because of their low density and high strength-to-weight ratio, durability, and corrosion resistance...
