This article takes an in-depth look at industrial ovens
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Industrial ovens are thermal processing machines used as heating chambers for drying, curing, and baking of foods, parts, and components. The main industries that use industrial ovens are chemical and food processing and electronics manufacturing. The label given to the heat treatment process describes the kind of property changes desired in a product when it is heated - dried, baked, or dehydrated. Industrial ovens can activate adhesives, fuse materials, heat set and shrink, preheat, sinter, melt, laminate, and thermal bond materials.
Industrial ovens are capable of generating various temperature ranges. Ovens designed for higher temperatures are utilized for drying substances and are referred to as kilns, although their temperatures are generally lower than those of conventional ceramic kilns. In contrast, lower temperature industrial ovens are employed for processes such as baking or curing and are commonly used in factories and bakeries.
Industrial ovens are available in a variety of sizes and configurations. While some resemble standard home ovens, others are large enough to accommodate people inside. Many of the larger models feature conveyor systems that efficiently heat large volumes of products quickly. These expansive ovens often include multiple shelves, making them suitable for baking numerous items simultaneously, such as bread loaves. Additionally, portable industrial ovens are designed for installation in vehicles or carts, enhancing their versatility.
All industrial ovens have precise temperature controls. Drying ones remove moisture, while curing ovens cause chemical reactions between a coating and a product. Like a typical household appliance, some industrial ovens are designed for food preparation. Food production industrial ovens are larger and can reach higher temperatures than the common domestic oven.
Industrial ovens, often referred to as commercial ovens, were initially created for two primary purposes: baking substantial quantities of food or curing industrial goods. With advancements in technology and innovations from manufacturers, these ovens have evolved to serve various functions beyond their original design. Today, they are utilized for applications ranging from laboratory and R&D testing to annealing processes that relieve material stress.
There are several varieties of industrial ovens with the two main types being electrical and gas. When people think of an oven for industrial use, they envision the gas type where gas is ignited in the burner and a fan or blower distributes hot air around a load. This form of oven can reach temperatures close to 1000° F but traditionally operates at between 180° F to 500 o F. Gas heated ovens use convection to distribute heat and heat up quickly. They are good for heating irregular products. The force of the fan and blower causes heat to be lost due to the full saturation of the oven. Some users consider the process to be inefficient and costly.
Ovens fired by gas are available in direct and indirect configurations and can use propane or natural gas. They are more expensive than electrical types that have lower running costs. In a direct fired oven, heat transfer is done by radiation from flames. Indirect ovens use a heat exchanger to transfer heat to the load.
In hot water ovens or steam ovens, water passes through radiator coils to emit energy. They are the preferred choice for applications that require lower temperatures where quick heating time is not necessary. Before being turned on, a reservoir for water needs to be filled either manually or automatically. Since water boils at 212° F, a hot water oven is limited in its range of temperatures.
Electric ovens do not have any fans, blowers, or other moving parts. Heat is created by a resistor where resistance from electric current generates thermal energy. By controlling the flow of electricity, the temperature in the oven is easily managed. For many, electric ovens are a less expensive solution and do not produce pollutants or other negative emissions.
Every industrial oven is different and has terminology that applies specifically to the manufacturer‘s design. Regardless of the terms used to describe them, there are basic features that are found on the majority of industrial ovens. In general, every industrial oven includes a motor, exhaust system, a duct network, flame or temperature control, and some type of burner or heating element. Each of the various parts are described below.
Industrial ovens are equipped with motors tailored to their specific applications. The fundamental motor powers the oven's systems, enabling functions such as temperature regulation, fan operation, and heating coil activation. Typically, this motor initiates the heating process and manages the overall functionality of the oven.
An integral component of any heating process is the exhaust and recirculation systems. For industrial ovens, it is crucial that these systems are meticulously designed to ensure consistent heat maintenance and energy efficiency. In convection, electric, and gas ovens, effective air circulation is vital for optimal performance and energy savings.
The critical importance of the duct distribution network is to maintain constant air flow for venting. All industrial ovens depend on a well-designed ducting system to keep the oven in working order. The type of system varies between manufacturers and depends on the type of heating application.
Before heating an industrial oven, it is essential to perform a purging process. This step, part of the recirculation system, eliminates any flammable vapors or gases that may have accumulated inside the oven during periods of inactivity. Completing the purging process is crucial before starting the motor or igniting the burner.
The flame safety and spark ignition controller oversees the ignition and startup process of the oven. It generates a high-voltage signal to activate the ignition system, which then opens the gas valve to the pilot light. Once the pilot flame is confirmed, the voltage ceases, and the main gas valve opens. If the flame is not detected, the system will shut down. This type of control is used in gas ovens. In contrast, electric ovens rely on temperature controls to regulate the heat of the resistor coil.
The type of burner varies between the types of ovens with direct fired types being supported by an electric motor, while others use radiant tube burners. Direct burners do not use a heat exchanger. The burner fired air is circulated directly into the oven. With a semi-indirect oven the burner is in a separate firing chamber with a blower system to direct the heat. The major emphasis with a burner is safety. Stipulations regarding the standards and specifications are supplied by manufacturers in compliance with federal regulations. Highly efficient burners produce very low nitrogen oxide waste.
Though the initial industrial ovens had only two varieties, over the years, they have progressed into variations to fit the purposes of several industries from auto manufacturers to part molding and extrusion companies. While curing ovens cause a chemical reaction to bake a powder onto a surface, batch ovens are huge and can handle large numbers of products. Below is a list and description of each type of industrial oven including how they are used and operate.
Annealing is a process where a metal or material is heated and then allowed to cool slowly. This technique aims to soften the material, improve its ductility, and facilitate cold working. Additionally, annealing may be used to enhance the material's malleability, relieve stress, or develop a new microstructure.
Gas burner systems, electric heaters, and radiant panels are used to heat annealing ovens. They can have a full inert gas system including seal welded interior panels, gas piping, control valves, and flow meters. Air in the oven can flow vertically in a top-down or bottom-up arrangement, horizontally in a cross flow or have combination of each.
Ovens can be equipped with differential airflow switches and have a conveying system, product tray, floor tracks, product carts, and floor designs. Optional features include welded structural steel framework, heavy gauge aluminized or stainless steel interior sheeting, an air distribution system, hinged access doors, modular build, high-density insulation, digital controls, and remote access controls. All annealing manufacturers conform to the codes established by the NFPA, IRI, FM, OSHA, JIC, NEC, UL and CE.
Baking ovens are thermal processing machines used in both industrial and commercial baking. They integrate curing and drying functions to create a dry heat environment, making them the most common choice for these tasks. These ovens are effective for curing paint on components, removing moisture, and achieving a smooth, dry finish. The consistent heat distribution within the oven guarantees an impeccable result and enhances productivity by accelerating the drying process.
The food supply industry and packaged food industry use large industrial baking ovens such as batch ovens used for large quantities of food and conveyor ovens where products pass on a conveyor through a heating chamber. Art studios and university art programs make use of kilns, which are ovens used to harden sculpted clay projects. Forced convection ovens use a fan to circulate hot air evenly and are made for baking on a large scale. Infrared ovens provide evenness and efficiency in baking by transferring heat directly to the product.
Batch ovens are designed to heat items to precise temperatures, allowing for the processing of large quantities simultaneously. They are commonly used for pre-heating components before coating or finishing, as well as for drying, curing, and outgassing finished products. Materials are placed in a fixed position for heat treatment and can be irregularly shaped and arranged differently within the oven. Batch ovens are valued for their controlled atmosphere, suitability for cleanroom settings, precise thermal regulation, and secure processing capabilities.
Batch ovens generally have a higher cost compared to other types of ovens but are more affordable than conveyor ovens. Their diverse range of sizes, shapes, capacities, weights, and thermal specifications ensures that a batch oven can be tailored to suit industries of any scale.
The operator of a batch oven uses a control unit to manage the heating of the oven, which can include a built-in vacuum system, air circulation system, and other options. The type of options depend on the industry where the oven is used. The sizes of batch ovens vary from bench top models to walk-in models. As with the sizes of batch ovens, heat sources vary from electrical elements, direct heating, and indirect burners. A common feature of batch ovens is outgassing, which is the releasing of trapped gasses from a product to prevent product deterioration.
Brazing ovens braze two or more metals together by melting a filler metal into the joint between two metals, which have a higher melting point than the filler. When done in an oven, it is called "furnace brazing." Brazing ovens are widely used for industrial brazing because they include mass production and are easily operated by unskilled labor.
Furnace brazing is the best brazing method for mass production. Brazing ovens produce large numbers of small parts that are self-locating or easily jigged. Their controlled heat cycle makes it possible to heat parts that would be distorted under localized heating, eliminating the need for post brazing cleaning, and provides protection against oxidation. The advantages of using a brazing oven are low unit cost, close temperature control, and the ability to braze multiple joints at once. They are heated with gas, electricity or oil, depending on their application and type.
There are four standard types of brazing ovens: batch, continuous, retort with controlled atmosphere, and vacuum. Batch brazing ovens have low start-up costs and heat each part load separately. Continuous brazing ovens have a steady flow of similarly sized parts fed through the oven‘s hot zone by a conveyor belt. Retort ovens have a sealed lining called a "retort", which is sealed with a gasket or welded shut They are made of heat and oxidation resistant alloys. Vacuum brazing ovens are an economical method of oxide prevention and are used to braze materials with stable oxides that cannot be brazed in atmosphere ovens.
Conveyor or continuous ovens are used for mass production consumer products. A conveyor belt moves through an open oven. Ovens are available in different sizes depending on production needs and have a maximum temperature that is stabilized by a set of insulated steel walls. Conveyor or continuous ovens include a cooling zone, multiple heat zones, and exhaust hood. They minimize labor cost by the automation of the production process. This type of oven is used as a drying oven in most industries.
Continuous ovens are commonly used in the food service industry to bake items like sandwiches and pizza. They generate substantial heat and are designed to retain moisture, helping to preserve the flavor and taste of the food produced.
Electric ovens are powered by electricity that is forced into the oven chamber by convection. They are the most popular type of industrial oven due to their ability to heat up quickly and their longevity. The heating process is relatively inexpensive and does not produce any pollutants. Electric ovens can be plugged into any outlet, take up very little space, and have fans that distribute the heat. Heating is precision controlled for rapid heating of the oven chamber.
Electric ovens create two main types of effects on products: physical and chemical. Physical effects involve heating and melting materials, while chemical effects include processes such as reduction without melting, synthesis, and calcination.
While gas ovens are often thought to be less expensive, electric ovens can sometimes be more cost-effective and efficient. Among the most popular and highly efficient types of electric ovens are those that utilize infrared energy. These ovens do not require heating the entire unit and lack fans or moving parts. Infrared energy, a form of electromagnetic radiation, heats products through light absorption.
Conventional electric ovens feature resistive elements that heat rapidly, are durable, offer precise temperature control, and are cost-effective. They are particularly suited for handling products that may be flammable or prone to discoloration from gas flames.
Quartz infrared ovens are highly energy-efficient, delivering heat almost instantly through high-frequency waves that travel directly to the objects needing warmth, without heating the surrounding air. The heat energy excites the molecules in the materials, causing them to vibrate and increase in temperature. While ceramics have long been used in infrared ovens for their ability to isolate heating elements and endure high temperatures, they also absorb significant heat. Quartz, however, does not have this drawback, making it a more effective material for these ovens.
Swapping ceramics for quartz has significantly improved the efficiency of industrial infrared ovens. Quartz offers similar insulation and temperature resistance as ceramics but adds the advantage of being transparent to infrared energy. This means that the heat generated by the heating element can pass through the quartz material without being absorbed.
In a quartz infrared oven, heat is transferred to an object or material through electromagnetic radiation. This process involves a beam of radiation emitted by an electrically heated filament made from coiled tungsten wire or gas. Industrial quartz infrared ovens utilize long-wave infrared radiation for heating, as it is highly effective for this purpose.
Heat treating ovens are a type of industrial oven, which are heated chambers used for industrial applications, including drying, curing or baking parts and final products. Heat treating ovens are used to alter the chemical and physical properties of metal or glass, including their hardness, tensile strength and toughness, through a three-step process of heating, cooling and reheating.
Heat treating ovens are typically categorized into two types: batch ovens and continuous ovens. Batch ovens are often loaded and unloaded manually, while continuous ovens feature an automated conveyor system that ensures a steady flow of items into the oven chamber. Heat treating ovens are used across various industries, including aerospace, automotive, composite and specialty materials, medical, dental, as well as military and defense sectors.
Forced convection ovens utilize a fan to circulate heated air, providing rapid heat recovery and consistent heat distribution. These ovens are equipped with over-temperature protection and adjustable intake and exhaust vents. They operate at temperatures ranging from 200°C to 300°C (392°F to 572°F), making them ideal for production processes that demand high levels of heat.
The primary advantage of forced convection ovens is their ability to evenly distribute and circulate hot air throughout the oven's interior. This continuous airflow prevents cooler air from accumulating on the surfaces of the items being heated. In these ovens, the heating elements are housed in a separate compartment, where a fan blows air across them, directing hot air either horizontally or vertically into the oven chamber.
The main benefit of forced convection ovens is their ability to deliver even and uniform heat distribution, which speeds up the treatment and drying of samples. This feature is crucial in fast-paced manufacturing environments where rapid processing and production are required. Another important aspect of these ovens is proper sample placement to ensure that airflow is not obstructed or limited in certain areas. Additionally, regular maintenance and inspection of all components, particularly the fan, are essential to maintain peak performance and efficiency.
Laboratory ovens are thermal processing devices utilized in various lab work and testing scenarios. Beyond research and development in manufacturing, these ovens play a crucial role in the healthcare sector for sterilization purposes and are employed in diverse research applications. Common uses include biochemical research, drug metabolism studies, protein and starch digestion experiments, and moisture content analysis.
While the applications of lab ovens are diverse and often specialized, the basic concept of an oven is not. An oven is an insulated, enclosed space that is heated in order to treat a product. From there the variations begin, but even specialized lab ovens exist to serve the purpose of thermal processing. Since all varieties of ovens originated in R&D departments, all varieties of ovens exist in lab settings.
Powder coating ovens are thermal processing ovens that are used to dry finishes on metals, wood, ceramics and plastic products. Dry finishing and powder coating refer to the process of spraying a surface with a substance and fusing it to the surface with heat. Powder coating ovens improve adherence of powders to materials to increase product durability and corrosion and abrasion resistance and the integrity of the surfaces of products.
Powder coating involves applying a granulated thermoset or thermoplastic powder to an object's surface using an electric charge. Although it might seem like the process is finished once the powder is sprayed, proper adhesion requires curing. The coated object must be baked in a sufficiently large oven at 232°C (450°F) for an extended period to ensure the coating securely adheres to the surface.
The curing process ensures that the coating firmly adheres to the object's surface. As the coating heats, it smooths out and appears as though it has been applied with a paintbrush. Achieving high-quality results requires a specialized oven due to the specific temperatures, heating durations, and types of coatings involved. Direct heating is not feasible; therefore, heating elements must be kept away from the items being treated.
Natural convection ovens, or gravity convection ovens, use gentle airflow to transfer heat from the source to the product. They are suitable for various applications such as baking, conditioning, sterilizing, curing, preheating, and aging, where precise drying times or rates are not critical. However, these ovens need careful monitoring as they are prone to overheating.
Natural convection occurs when heat from a source causes thermal expansion. As molecules heat up, they move more rapidly and collide, gradually spreading the heat throughout the oven chamber. In natural convection ovens, the natural movement of air heats the interior, creating a consistent airflow that reaches every corner and space of the oven.
Natural convection ovens offer a cost-effective solution for curing and drying processes. They can reach very high temperatures ranging from 300°C to 700°C (572°F to 1292°F) and feature low turbulence, making them ideal for gentle drying cycles. Available in various designs, some models come equipped with precision controls and electronic monitoring accessories. The main benefits of natural convection ovens are their stability, reproducibility, and efficiency, making them suitable for applications where safety and ease of use are essential.
Curing ovens cause chemical reactions in a product and are used to harden products made from rubber, plastics, and metals. They are used in manufacturing and are available in many varieties for numerous applications. Curing ovens are built with steel insulated panels, steel frames, and a heating element that is powered by electricity or natural gas.
Curing ovens are designed to facilitate the formation of bonds between monomers in a high-temperature environment. The term "curing oven" broadly refers to various types of ovens used in the curing process. Differences among these ovens arise from the specific conditions, requirements, and complexities of the monomers being treated, as each type demands distinct temperatures and heating environments. The primary goal of curing, similar to coating, is to improve the durability and strength of the product.
When purchasing a curing oven, it's essential to consider several factors, as each curing process must be tailored to the specific needs of the material being cured. While cost is often a major factor in buying industrial equipment, it is less relevant for curing ovens, which must be precisely suited to the product's requirements.
Drying ovens are used to remove moisture and as a heat treatment method as part of the extrusion process for the sterilization of medical equipment. Air circulation for a drying oven can be natural or forced convection depending on the type and brand of oven. Vacuum drying ovens are used for powders, granular products, and electronic components. The determination of the temperature of a drying oven is based on the moisture content of the items to be dried, which is carefully measured before placing items in the oven.
Drying ovens serve a variety of functions beyond just drying and sterilization. They are also used for more complex tasks, including:
Drying ovens are used for a range of tasks beyond basic drying and sterilization, including bonding adhesives to substrates, preserving flowers, and dehydrating foods to extend their shelf life. These ovens come in various technologies and heating mechanisms to handle different volume capacities and drying processes. The main types of drying ovens are convection, rotary, conveyor, vacuum, and vertical, each designed to meet specific application needs effectively.
Drying ovens come in various sizes, from small to large batch models for industrial applications. They are crucial across multiple sectors, including the food industry, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, textile production, and research and development. These ovens are essential for testing products, completing production processes, and ensuring product quality.
Infrared ovens are thermal processing ovens that transfer heat directly and are rapidly becoming the standard for industrial ovens. Heat from infrared ovens is more efficiently distributed to applications involving the drying or curing of complex components. Infrared ovens quickly preheat coated products in the initial curing stages. Hybrid industrial ovens use a combination of convection and infrared heating. Conveyor ovens rely on infrared heating elements as a cost effective and energy efficient heating method for maintaining oven temperatures evenly throughout the zones of the conveyor.
Infrared ovens use electromagnetic radiation as their heat source, emitting wavelengths of heat that are not visible to the human eye. This radiant heat is generated from electrical or gas energy and is directed by shields and reflectors. It is absorbed by items in the direct path of the infrared beams, which effectively heat objects that can absorb light.
Infrared ovens are widely used because they quickly achieve their set temperature and are cost-effective. The wavelengths emitted by these ovens vary depending on the temperature: longer wavelengths are used for lower temperatures, while shorter wavelengths are used for higher temperatures. The two key factors that influence the temperature setting are the type of material being processed and its thickness, as each material has its own unique absorption characteristics.
Rotary ovens are used to raise the temperature of materials in a continuous, indexed or manual cycle. Typical applications for a rotary oven include annealing, lean or cell based manufacturing, pre-heating, shrink fitting, and stress relieving. Rotary ovens rotate the material in a heated chamber through single or multiple heat zones. They can include recirculation fans, inert atmospheres, thermal and regenerative oxidizers, remote capabilities, UL or CE certified panels, PE certifications, and programmable controls with HMI technology. Rotary ovens produce heat using electricity, liquefied petroleum gas, natural gas, fuel oil, and steam.
The core feature of rotary industrial ovens is a turntable that spins within the oven chamber. These ovens can be designed with either a single chamber where the turntable rotates or multiple heat zones with loading and unloading occurring at designated areas. The rotating turntable ensures that items are exposed to heat from various angles, promoting even and thorough heating. This design helps prevent overheating and hotspots on components. Additionally, the rotary mechanism allows for the efficient treatment of large volumes of items in a reduced time frame.
Rotary ovens are popular for their efficient heating process and versatility with various materials and components. Their rapid processing capabilities make them an essential tool in production facilities that operate under tight schedules.
Tunnel ovens have a series of open-ended baking chambers connected with a metal belt with a baking platform carried on the belt. Products baked using a tunnel oven can either be baked directly on the hearth or a pan. Tunnel ovens come in two categories: direct gas fired and indirect gas fired. Direct gas fired bake products using air turbulence where baking happens in less time. They use a set of thermocouple sensors to provide zoned temperature controls and regulate the baking chambers. With flame above and below the baking material, products are very evenly heated.
Indirect gas fired tunnel ovens use oil, propane, or gas. Burners fire into a combustion chamber that supplies the heat for the baking chamber. The product bakes by heated ambient air. They have a mesh hearth allowing air to circulate in the chamber to uniformly bake the bottom of the product as it moves across the conveyor.
Tunnel ovens are available in various types and designs tailored to specific applications. They are known for their minimal turnaround time between batches and operate on a continuous cycle. Major industries that utilize tunnel ovens include food production and automotive manufacturing.
Vacuum ovens control the atmospheric pressure in the heating chamber in order to remove contaminants, chemicals, and moisture from products. The main reason for the use of vacuum ovens is their ability to remove oxygen that can cause oxidation. Vacuum ovens control of the surface reaction of materials through use of sophisticated control systems that control the conditions in the heating chamber. For drying operations, vacuum ovens are able to dry items at a very low temperature, which makes the ovens ideal for drying sensitive materials.
Vacuum ovens, like other industrial ovens, come in various designs, configurations, and types, all serving the same primary function. They operate at temperatures ranging from 200°C to 250°C (392°F to 482°F). Contemporary vacuum ovens are equipped with durable high-pressure chambers, precise analog or digital controls, stainless steel construction, and sealing gaskets engineered to endure high pressure.
Vacuum ovens serve several key functions, including moisture removal, off-gassing, prevention of chemical reactions, and bake-out, which is a rapid form of off-gassing. They are particularly effective for drying fragile, delicate, or sensitive items. Off-gassing helps eliminate liquid materials like lubricants or sealants that might affect the product's performance. The vacuum environment within these ovens enables the removal of chemicals that could cause adverse or hazardous reactions.
A special form of industrial oven is the portable variety. They function in the same way as other industrial ovens but are limited in capacity and size. The food service and production industries use portable ovens for the same purposes as traditional, larger industrial ovens. They are lighter and have wheels or handles for ease of mobility and are designed to heat much lower product volumes but have shorter preheating times. Since portable ovens are small, they can be stacked or set on a counter and have a maximum heating temperature of 1000° F. The majority of portable ovens are small batch designs and use the same fuels as other industrial ovens.
The size of portable ovens makes them ideal for use in laboratory ovens for R and D testing and the sterilization of medical tools. A few of their applications include bio-chemical research, drug metabolism research, protein and starch digestion research, and moisture analysis. Portable ovens provide a testing ground for new ideas and concepts in a controlled and enclosed environment.
Continuous process ovens operate repetitively to heat-treat products as they move through the oven. Similar to an assembly line, these ovens allow items to undergo one or multiple heat treatments while traveling through different zones or chambers. They are designed to handle high production volumes, delivering uniform and consistent heat throughout the process to ensure consistent quality.
Selecting a continuous oven depends on the desired results, the materials to be processed, and how well the oven integrates into the manufacturing workflow. After these factors are assessed, decisions can be made regarding the oven's design, temperature specifications, and belt material. Continuous ovens are used for various processes, including tempering, annealing, curing, pre-heating, drying, heat shrinking, and heat forming.
Continuous ovens find applications across various industries such as aerospace, defense, fiber optics, wood and metal finishing, plastics, rubber, industrial processing, pharmaceuticals, electronics, printing, and automotive. Their robust performance is attributed to their welded steel construction and heavy-duty interiors, which can achieve temperatures up to 676°C (1250°F). The design of continuous ovens can vary widely, including configurations such as flat conveyor belts, chain conveyors, ferris wheels, carousels, overhead trolleys, chain-on-edge conveyors, spindles, slats, strip cure systems, print plates, pusher ovens, dog beams, and wash draws.
Gas-powered industrial ovens are favored for their cost-effectiveness compared to electric ovens. They heat up quickly, maintain stable temperatures, and offer consistent performance over long periods, making them ideal for products that require extended heating times. Gas ovens typically use propane or natural gas as their fuel. Although gas ovens are generally more expensive to build and manufacture due to their robust design, their efficiency and durability justify the investment.
Natural gas is generally less expensive than propane. However, using natural gas requires accessible gas lines at the manufacturing facility. The initial costs for constructing a gas oven and installing gas lines are offset over time by the long lifespan and efficiency of gas-powered industrial ovens.
Propane, while more expensive than natural gas, is highly energy efficient and delivers 2.5 times the energy of natural gas. It is supplied in tanks, eliminating the need for gas line plumbing to the oven.
Gas industrial ovens offer performance comparable to other energy sources and include various types like batch, conveyor, and vertical ovens. They handle tasks such as drying, curing, sterilizing, annealing, and tempering. Gas ovens are particularly effective for applications like manufacturing brake pads, linings, and curing coatings.
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