Stainless Steel Fabrication

Chapter 1: What is Stainless Steel Fabrication?

Stainless steel fabrication encompasses a series of manufacturing processes that shape, stress, bend, cut, and deform the metal to produce a range of durable stainless steel products. The goal of these fabrication processes is to leverage the numerous positive characteristics and properties of stainless steel to improve the endurance, appearance, strength, and longevity of the final product.

Despite steel’s long history of use for its robustness and reliability, stainless steel is a relatively modern alloy, emerging just over a century ago to address issues like gun barrel erosion. Following its initial development, the steel industry quickly advanced, leading to various methods for producing stainless steel.

These production methods have resulted in a diverse range of stainless steel alloys, each tailored to specific needs. Depending on the alloy components, stainless steel can range from very hard and highly corrosion-resistant to softer and more flexible. This has given rise to three main classifications: austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic, as well as five main families: austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, duplex, and precipitation hardening.

The variety of stainless steel families and classifications can create a complex array of alloys, which may be overwhelming to those not familiar with the material.

Furthermore, each family of stainless steel has numerous grades, identified by numbers that signify their quality and characteristics. In the U.S., there are two primary grading systems: the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), which uses a three-digit code, and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), which employs a six-digit code to classify over 200 stainless steel alloys.

In addition to these U.S. systems, other international standards are applied by organizations like the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), as well as in countries such as Japan, Germany, Great Britain, Sweden, and China, each with its own grading conventions. This array of standards and classifications can make it challenging to obtain clear information about the various stainless steel alloys.

Grade 304 stainless steel under the SAE system is classified as follows:

• Emergency Number (EN) number: 1.4305
• Emergency Number (EN) name: X8CrNiN18-9
• Unified Numbering System (UNS): S30400
• Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN): X5CrNi18-9, X5CrNi18-10, X5CrNi19-9
• British Standards (BS): 304S 15, 304S 16, 304S 18, 304S 25, En58E
• Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS): SUS 304, SUS 304-CSP

EN numbers represent a European standard system originally established by the British to classify metal specifications, grades, and chemical compositions, particularly for various steel types. This system was developed during World War II to streamline the identification of product standards. The German counterpart of this standardization body is known as Deutsches Institut für Normung.

Chapter 2: Methods for Fabricating Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is widely recognized for its use in manufacturing a broad range of products, appearing in both everyday items and industrial applications. Its appeal goes beyond its attractive appearance; its durability and resistance to corrosion contribute significantly to its popularity.

Various grades of stainless steel can be shaped and processed, with austenitic grades being the most commonly worked. Stainless steel fabrication encompasses a range of traditional techniques used to shape and form metals into various components, tools, and products. The specific fabrication method selected depends on the grade of stainless steel and its alloy composition.

Each stainless steel grade possesses unique properties tailored to meet specific application requirements. While choosing the right grade for fabrication may seem complex, different grading systems provide detailed descriptions of each grade’s attributes, simplifying the selection process.

Stainless steel is adaptable to many traditional forming techniques. Despite its significant strength and high hardening ability, it remains highly ductile, allowing for cold forming. Fabricators adjust their methods based on the stainless steel grade being processed. The varying combinations of elements in each grade alter the metal’s properties, influencing the fabrication approach.

Work Hardening

The extent of work hardening varies by the stainless steel grade, with austenitic grades experiencing rapid hardening while 400 series stainless steels harden at a rate slightly higher than carbon steel. Austenitic stainless steels are particularly effective in work hardening processes. Martensitic stainless steels can be hardened through thermal treatments like tempering and quenching. Conversely, ferritic stainless steels can undergo cold working, but this process is quite slow, making it challenging to achieve high strength.

Stainless steels that exhibit the highest work hardening rates typically have elevated magnetic permeability. Cold working enhances the tensile strength of different grades, potentially reaching up to 2000 MPa. However, as the size of the stainless steel components increases, the feasibility and efficiency of cold working decrease, making it less practical for larger pieces.

Welding

Stainless steel grades vary in their welding properties, with each type exhibiting unique characteristics. Among these, austenitic stainless steels are known for their superior weldability. Martensitic stainless steels, due to their high carbon content, require careful handling during welding. Ferritic grades, when welded under the right conditions, also offer excellent weldability.

• Welding Austenitic Stainless Steel – All grades of austenitic stainless steel can be welded with the exception of grade 303 and cracks during welding.
• Welding Martensitic Stainless Steel – Martensitic stainless steel can be welded using austenitic filler rods, which helps with the metal’s ductility. Martensitic stainless steel that is the exception is grade 416 that has a high sulfur content. A drawback to welding martensitic stainless steel is the hard and brittle zones that form adjacent to the area of welding.
• Welding Ferritic Stainless Steel – The factors that make ferritic stainless steel difficult to weld include lack of ductility and excessive grain growth.

Deep Drawing

The deep drawing technique is a cold working method performed at ambient temperatures, though post-processing heat treatment can enhance the material's strength. This method is primarily used for the 400 series ferritic and 300 series austenitic stainless steels. Among these, the 300 series is generally preferred for deep drawing applications.

Due to its tendency to work harden more quickly than carbon steel, stainless steel demands approximately double the pressure for effective stretching and forming. The process is carefully controlled to prevent metal breakage and galling. The chromium oxide layer on stainless steel increases friction during deep drawing, requiring the use of coated and lubricated tools to reduce wear.

The efficiency of the deep drawing process is influenced by factors such as friction, pressure, and the depth of the draw. Improper speed calibration can result in defects like breakage and wrinkles. It is advisable to proceed slowly, particularly as the severity of the draw increases.

Punching

Punching involves positioning a stainless steel sheet between a punch and die, both made from hardened steel or tungsten carbide, which are highly durable metals designed for precision and longevity. The punch press descends on the sheet, cutting through to create a hole with exact dimensions and shape according to the design. Besides creating holes, punching can also be used to emboss patterns and dimples without fully penetrating the material.

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machining is frequently utilized for punching and embossing due to its high precision and efficiency. The flexibility of CNC technology allows for performing multiple punches in a single operation and enables a broad spectrum of fabrication tasks to be executed in one cycle.

Cutting

When it comes to cutting stainless steel, methods such as shearing, sawing, and both plasma and laser cutting are employed. Although the techniques used are similar to those for cutting carbon steel, the key difference lies in the force required. Ferritic stainless steel can be cut similarly to carbon steel due to its comparable strength, while austenitic stainless steel requires a lower punch clearance to reduce burr formation.

A major challenge in cutting stainless steel is the wear and potential chipping that cutting tools experience, which affects the tool's edge quality. To minimize burrs, it is essential to adjust factors such as clearance, cutting force, and speed. For thermal cutting processes, both the shielding gas and the energy input play significant roles in controlling the amount of burr formation.

Bending

Bending stainless steel allows for the formation of various shapes by manipulating the bend's angle and radius. The techniques employed for bending include V-bending, roll bending, U-bending, edge bending, and wipe bending.

• V-Bending – V-bending is the most common bending process and includes a punch that has the shape of the letter V. When the punch is pressed against a sheet of stainless steel, the metal takes a V shape.
• Roll Bending – Roll bending involves the use of three large curls that are driven by a hydraulic system. The roll bending tool has two lower rollers and an upper roller. As the stainless steel sheet is driven between the upper and lower rollers, the upper roller presses downward to bend and curve the sheet.
• U-Bending – U-bending involves the use of a U-shaped die that presses down on the workpiece.
• Rotary Bending – Rotary bending includes a solid platform and a rotary tool that bends the workpiece over the platform to form a V-shape that is more than 90°. Although the final profile is in the shape of a V, the bend and surface are smoother.
• Edge Bending – Edge bending places the workpiece between a pressure pad and a die that has the shape of the desired edge. A measured portion of the workpiece is projected out above the die and held in place by the pressure pad. As the punch moves downward, it bends the exposed portion into a right angle that has the shape of the edge. The method is used in panel bending for short metal sheets to reduce sharpness and prevent damage to the bending edge.
• Wipe Bending – Wipe bending is like edge bending. The process uses a lower die to apply pressure to the protruding metal. The pressure pad and punch work together to complete the bending process.

Surface Treatments

Stainless steel undergoes various surface treatments to leverage its strength and durability. These treatments not only serve protective and enhancing purposes but also contribute to the metal's aesthetic appeal. Techniques such as cold rolling and pickling create a matte, durable finish suitable for architectural use, resulting in a smooth, semi-reflective surface.

• Electroplating – Electroplating is used to apply other metals to the surface of stainless steel products, which are thin decorative layers that are applied to bathroom fixtures.
• Textures – Stainless steel is textured through the use of chemical treatments that modify the oxide layer with the most popular method being anodization, which increases the thickness of the oxide layer, applies a dye into the open layer, and seals the surface with an application of oxide.
• Polishing – Polishing is used to smooth the surface of stainless steel using light brushes. Finishes are for aesthetic purposes and the requirements for health and cleansing, which are demanded by hospitals and the food industry.
• Painting – The durability of stainless steel makes it difficult for paint to adhere to the surface necessitating extensive surface preparation. A stainless steel primer helps in bonding the paint to the surface. The first step in the painting process is rough the surface with steel wool or fine grit sandpaper without scratching the surface and leaving marks. Once the surface is cleaned, a primer is applied followed by the paint. In many cases, application brushes are used to create an appealing texture.

The fabrication techniques for stainless steel mentioned earlier represent just a subset of the numerous methods available to manufacturers for producing diverse stainless steel products. When choosing a fabrication approach, it is recommended to consult with a skilled fabricator who can offer a range of standard as well as specialized and custom techniques.

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Chapter 3: What are the types of stainless steel used for fabricating?

Each grade, series, and category of stainless steel is designed to fulfill specific application needs with unique properties and characteristics. The extensive range of stainless steel types contributes to its widespread use. Selecting the appropriate stainless steel can appear intricate and daunting. To assist users in choosing the right type for various products and components, stainless steel manufacturers have developed detailed classification systems.

Stainless steel types and grades are suited to different applications. When selecting a grade for a project, it is essential to consider factors such as the product type, forming method, and the equipment involved.

Choosing the right stainless steel involves understanding the different grades, which are categorized into four main families: austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, and duplex. Austenitic stainless steel, the largest group, is composed of steel combined with nickel or manganese and nitrogen.

Ferritic stainless steel primarily includes carbon steel and chromium, whereas martensitic stainless steels vary in their mix of iron, chromium, and carbon. The specific properties of martensitic stainless steel depend on the exact composition and additional alloys used. Duplex stainless steel blends austenite and ferrite in varying proportions and ratios.

Precipitation hardening (PH) stainless steel is a specialized type that undergoes a heat treatment process to enhance its yield strength, resulting in high-temperature durability. This process involves heating the stainless steel to a very high temperature, rapidly cooling it, and then reheating it to an intermediate temperature.

Grades of stainless steel are identified by a numbering system, which varies between Great Britain, the International Organization of Standardization (ISO), Japan, Europe, the United States, Germany, and China. Regardless of the system, all organizations base their system on the properties, characteristics, and standards for stainless steel.

Stainless steel is classified into five broad categories, each defined by the specific alloy compositions used in their production. Among these categories, ferritic, martensitic, and austenitic are the most commonly utilized, with austenitic stainless steel being the most widely used of all.

Ferritic

Ferritic stainless steel has over 12% chromium content with low carbon content, which makes it non-hardenable. It has high corrosion resistance and differs from other stainless steels in its molecular grain structure and chemical makeup. Ferritic stainless steel is magnetic with a body centered cubic (BCC) lattice structure. In addition to its chromium and carbon content, ferritic stainless steel has small quantities of manganese, molybdenum, niobium, and titanium.

Ferritic stainless steel is designated by the series number 400, which is further divided into five distinct groups.

• Group 1 (Type 409/410L) – Good for moist conditions and does not crack from corrosion
• Group 2 (Type 430) – High chromium content resistant to organic, nitric, and sulfuric acids
• Group 3 (Type 430Ti, 439 and 441) – Exceptional weldability
• Group 4 (Type 434, 436, 444) – High molybdenum content for cryogenic conditions
• Group 5 (Type 446, 445, 447) – Scale proof and resistant to salt water

Ferritic stainless steel cannot be hardened through thermal methods but is amenable to shaping through cold working. It is characterized by its magnetic properties, ductility, and resistance to corrosion. The most widely used grade is type 430, which contains 16 percent chromium. Ferritic stainless steels are generally more cost-effective compared to austenitic and duplex grades. They are commonly used in the production of automotive components, industrial equipment, and kitchenware.

Austenitic

Austenitic stainless steel is a commonly used stainless steel that can be welded, formed, shaped, and reconfigured for multiple purposes. It is a face centered cubic (FCC) iron or steel alloy with 10.5% chromium, 5% to 12% nickel, and small percentages of nitrogen and carbon. Austenitic stainless steel can be cold worked to improve its hardness, strength, and stress resistance. It can be heat treated to be shaped, after which it returns to its original strength when cooled. Austenitic stainless steel is classified in the 200 and 300 series of stainless steel.

The 300 series of austenitic stainless steel features grade 304, which contains 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel, and grade 316, which includes 16 percent chromium, 10 percent nickel, and 2 percent molybdenum. While most austenitic stainless steels can be hardened through cold working, they do not respond to heat treatment. Typical properties of austenitic stainless steel include:

• Exceptional corrosion resistance, especially acids, alkaline, and chlorine
• Non-magnetic
• Formable using most metalworking processes
• Retains toughness and ductility at very low temperatures
• High temperature strength
• Hygienic and easy to clean
• Weldability
• Recyclable without loss of properties

Austenitic stainless steel is divided into series 200 and series 300, with nickel being the dominant alloy in series 300. In contrast, series 200 primarily features manganese and nitrogen, with lesser amounts of nickel. Series 300 austenitic stainless steels are widely used across various applications, whereas series 200 is less commonly utilized.

Notable grades in the 300 series include:

• Type 304 – strong, corrosion resistant, and can be easily fabricated
• Type 316 - increased resistance to corrosion and high heat resistance
• Type 310 - resistant to oxidation and corrosion - used for high temperature applications
• Type 321 – contains titanium for increased corrosion resistance to chemicals at high temperatures

Martensitic

Martensitic stainless steel falls under the 400 series and is composed mainly of iron and chromium. Unlike ferritic stainless steel, martensitic types can be hardened through heat treatment and exhibit good ductility, magnetism, and resistance to corrosion. Type 410 is especially favored for its strength under challenging conditions.

The chromium content in martensitic stainless steel ranges from 11.5% to 18%, with about 1.2% carbon and a small amount of nickel. The high carbon content imparts a robust molecular structure, while the limited nickel reduces its corrosion resistance. Additional alloying elements may include manganese, molybdenum, and nickel.

Martensitic stainless steel is categorized into low carbon and high carbon types. Low carbon martensitic stainless steel contains 0.05% to 0.25% carbon, whereas high carbon types have 0.61% to 1.5% carbon. Increased carbon content enhances strength but also makes the steel more brittle, limiting its weldability and formability.

Key grades of martensitic stainless steel include:

• Type 410 - general purpose grade whose hardness levels can be changed by slightly adjusting hardening and tempering heat treatments
• Type 420 – has a wide range of hardness levels created by heat treatment cycles
• Type 440 - hardening capabilities but limited formability in annealed condition

Duplex

Duplex stainless steel (DSS) alloys are characterized by their high chromium content, ranging from 18% to 28%, and nickel content between 1.5% and 8%. The term "duplex" refers to its dual-phase microstructure, which consists of roughly equal amounts of austenite and ferrite. This combination imparts the material with the properties of both austenitic and ferritic stainless steels.

Duplex stainless steel is divided into several subgroups: lean, standard, super, and hyper duplex. These alloys offer superior toughness compared to ferritic stainless steels and possess about twice the strength of austenitic stainless steels. While they have lower corrosion resistance than ferritic types, they generally outperform common austenitic grades such as 304 and 316 in terms of corrosion resistance. Grades of duplex stainless steel are typically numbered in the 2000s.

Subgroups of duplex stainless steel include:

• Lean – low nickel content and no molybdenum – 2101, 2102, 2202, 2304
• Standard – high nickel content and molybdenum – 2205, 2003, 2404
• Super – 25% chromium content with increased molybdenum and nickel – 2507, 255 and Z100
• Hyper – Higher amounts of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and nitrogen – 2707

Precipitation Hardening

A distinctive type of stainless steel is precipitation hardening stainless steel, which boasts strength three to four times greater than that of austenitic stainless steel. This alloy is created by combining elements such as copper, molybdenum, aluminum, and titanium, and is available in low carbon martensitic, semi-austenitic, and austenitic forms. Each type is tailored by its specific alloy composition. The exceptional strength and corrosion resistance of precipitation hardening stainless steel result from the precipitation hardening process. Among these, the martensitic variant, known as 17/4PH, is widely used and contains 17 percent chromium and 4 percent nickel.

Precipitation hardening stainless steel encompasses a range of corrosion-resistant alloys that, when treated, achieve tensile strengths between 850 MPa and 1700 MPa, and yield strengths from 520 MPa to over 1500 MPa, making them significantly stronger than austenitic grades like 304 and 316.

Categories of precipitation hardening stainless steel include:

• Martensitic – has an austenitic structure at annealing temperatures of 1040°C to 1065°C. After it cools to room temperature, the metal transforms to martensitic.
• Semi-Austenitic – retains an austenitic structure at room temperature but forms martensite at very low temperatures.
• Austenitic – retains its structure after annealing and hardening by aging and has lower hardness than martensitic precipitation hardened stainless steel and semi-austenitic precipitation hardened stainless steel.

Chapter 4: How Stainless Steel Products are Used

Modern appliances and industrial products are made of stainless steel due to its ability to adapt to extreme temperatures, corrosion and rust resistance, and superior strength. The main stipulations for stainless steel products are that they require limited care and can endure all forms of use. The popularity of stainless steel rests in its ability to meet stringent and exacting requirements, especially its ability to maintain its appearance in stressful conditions.

Food and Catering

Stainless steel is non-porous, scratch resistant, and sturdy enough to make it ideal for sanitary and antiseptically clean conditions, such as large kitchens, where it is used as cutlery, and cookware. Counter tops, cookware, and utensils in the food processing industries are made from stainless steel to meet the exacting requirements of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and local health inspectors.

Offshore Technology

In the oil and gas industries, corrosion-resistant pipes are crucial for withstanding the severe conditions found at offshore drilling sites. The corrosive environment can lead to pipe failures and pose significant risks. Robust stainless steel pipes are essential to maintaining safety and reliability in these operations.

Seawater Desalination Plants

Desalination is the process of extracting salt and minerals from seawater to produce fresh water suitable for drinking or irrigation. This technique is employed in submarines and ships and is crucial for providing potable water to regions with scarce fresh water resources. Given that saltwater can corrode and damage standard pipes, stainless steel pipes are highly effective and durable for use in desalination systems.

Chemical Industry

Chemical plants handle highly corrosive and toxic substances like acids and oxidizers, which can damage standard piping and materials. To ensure thorough removal of hazardous residues, storage tanks and pipes are often cleaned with bleach, a process that many metals cannot withstand.

By the late 20th century, duplex stainless steel became a popular choice in the chemical industry due to its superior strength and resistance. Advances in chemical processing demanded more robust and durable materials, and duplex stainless steel's remarkable resistance to chloride-induced stress corrosion cracking has led to its increased adoption in the sector.

Bridges

Duplex stainless steel is also becoming increasingly popular in the construction of bridges and other structures due to its strength, which is twice that of ferritic stainless steel. Its superior strength allows for the use of less material to achieve the same structural integrity, making duplex stainless steel both cost-effective and weight-efficient.

Medical Industry

The medical field demands that all instruments, equipment, and tools be both antiseptically clean and sterile. Only a few metals can endure the rigorous cleaning processes necessary to meet these standards. Stainless steel is preferred for manufacturing medical instruments and equipment due to its ability to withstand the intensive disinfecting treatments required by healthcare professionals.

The chromium in stainless steel enhances its resistance to scratches and corrosion, which is crucial for cleaning and sterilization. Nickel contributes to a smooth, even surface, while molybdenum adds hardness, helping medical tools retain their strength and shape. Stainless steel is used for surgical cutting tools because it maintains its sharp edge and cleanliness after sterilization.

Civil Engineering

Stainless steel's numerous advantageous properties make it an excellent choice for structural load-bearing applications. Austenitic and duplex grades are often hot rolled and welded into sheets, plates, bars, and tubes for use in structural sections, while other sections may be cold-formed. Additionally, bolts, screws, and various fasteners are manufactured from stainless steel due to its exceptional strength and durability.

Common stainless steels utilized in structural applications include austenitic grades such as series 304 and series 316, as well as duplex stainless steel grades 321, 322, and 323. For specific structural uses, ferritic stainless steels with a thickness of 3 mm and a nickel content ranging from 2% to 4% are also employed.

Shipbuilding Industry

Duplex stainless steel is commonly used for constructing storage and cargo tanks on ships, while austenitic grades are preferred for navigation tankers. Stainless steel is employed in various ship components, including piping, pulpits, hinges, propeller shafts, railings, accents, fasteners, and shackles. Despite its high cost preventing its use for ship hulls, stainless steel is extensively utilized in other parts of ships due to its excellent resistance to corrosion and rust, making it particularly valuable for crucial ship components.

Power Plants

Power generation plants need materials that can withstand high temperatures and intense pressure. Stainless steel has been a material of choice for traditional coal-fired plants due to its durability. In contemporary power plants, it is used in various applications including cooling systems, heat exchangers, combustion components, boiler superheaters, reheater tubing, and water panels. Additionally, stainless steel is in high demand for nuclear power plants, where it is utilized for tanks, chimneys, and containment canisters.

Storage Tanks

Stainless steel is widely used for manufacturing storage tanks due to its excellent resistance to corrosion and rust. These tanks are ideal for holding corrosive substances such as chemicals, gases, and bulk materials like food and water, as stainless steel does not impart any flavor or odor to the contents.

Industries such as agriculture, fire protection, and fuel transport and storage rely on stainless steel for their storage tanks because of the material’s strength and durability. This is particularly crucial in the chemical industry, where tanks must not react with the substances they contain.

Wire

Stainless steel is commonly used to produce drawn wire, a process that involves pulling or pushing the metal through a die under significant stress and force. The diameter of the wire affects its tensile strength and hardness. Only certain grades of stainless steel, capable of being drawn into wire, are used for this purpose. The most frequently used grades are from the 300 series, including 302, 304, and 316. Cold drawing further enhances the strength of these grades.

Chapter 5: Making the Decision to Use Stainless Steel for Fabricating a Product

The many grades and families of stainless steel can make selecting the right grade for a project difficult. There are several factors to consider when designing a stainless steel product, such as the required strength and necessary work hardening as well as other characteristics that play a part in the fabrication process.

While stainless steel is renowned for its strength and resistance to corrosion, not all types and grades possess these properties to the same extent. Each grade and type of stainless steel offers varying levels of corrosion resistance, strength, and durability. Therefore, it is important to understand the specific properties of each type and grade before choosing stainless steel for manufacturing a product.

Stainless steel is widely used in construction projects due to its aesthetic appeal and strength. It is commonly found in exterior features such as railings, siding, fixtures, countertops, and backsplashes. Its durability and resilience, combined with its attractive appearance, contribute to its long-lasting performance in various applications.

Since the 1930‘s, stainless steel has played a major part in the production of automobiles. Initially, it was used for exhaust systems, trim, and other non-structural purposes. With the advent of increased emissions standards, stainless steel has become an important component in the structure and design of automobiles.

Stainless steel has profoundly influenced the medical instrument industry because of its ease of sterilization and resistance to corrosion. In addition to surgical tools, stainless steel is used in medical implants like hip joints. It is also essential for pins and plates used in the repair of broken bones.

High carbon grades of stainless steel are popular and widely used in a variety of industries from the chemical processing of paper to the production of foods and beverages. Depending on the product and industry, the 400 series, with less corrosion resistance, may be used while the 300 series with good corrosion resistance may be preferred due to its lower cost and surface finishes.

• Austenitic stainless steel is suited for welding, spinning, brazing, soldering, cold and hot riveting, polishing, hot and cold forming, buffing, brazing, blanking, nonmagnetic grinding, perforating, cold shearing, and machining.
• Ferritic stainless steel can be used for blanking, deep drawing and magnetic grinding, brazing, buffing, hot and cold forming, polishing, hot and cold riveting, perforating, cold shearing, soldering, and brazing and can be fabricated by machining and welding.
• Martensitic stainless steel is used for air hardening, blanking, magnetic and nonmagnetic grinding, and heat treatment hardening. It has characteristics that are similar to austenitic and ferritic stainless steels and responds well to multiple forms of heat treatments to increase its hardness, strength, and corrosion resistance.

Conclusion

• Stainless steel fabrication is a set of manufacturing processes that shapes, stresses, bends, cuts, and deforms the metal to produce a group of resilient stainless steel products
• Stainless steel, in its many forms, has become a necessary part of product production.
• Producers and manufacturers rely on stainless steel’s indestructible qualities for the creation of many products.
• It is very likely there will be more forms of stainless steel in the future.
• Although stainless steel has a highly appealing appearance, its strength and corrosion resistance are two of the reasons for its wide use.

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